Anatolia

  1. Prehistory
  2. Bronze Age Cultures
    1. Assyrian Trading Colonies
    2. Hatti - region of the central plateau of Anatolia drained by the Halys river -2nd Millennium BCE We know of the Hatti from the Hittite records. They gave their name to Anatolia which was known in Mesopotamia as the land of the Hatti from the beginning of the Akkadian dynasty, c. 2350-2150 BCE Even the Hittites called their own land the 'Land of the Hatti'. The influence of Hattic civilization was strong among the Hittites, affecting their religion, political administration and many other features. Hattusha, the Hittite capital was originally a Hattic settlement as the name implies.
    3. Hittites **** c. 1700-1200
      1. Settlement of the Hittites in Anatolia c. 2000 BCE
      2. Old Kingdom founded by King Labarnas c. 1700-1600
      3. Capital of Hattusas founded by his son and successor Hattusilis I
      4. Re-establishment of the Hittite empire under Tudhaliyas II c. 1430
      5. The Battle of Kadesh under king Muwatillis vs. Ramses II c.1290 BCE
      6. Destruction of the Empire c. 1200 BCE
    4. Mitanni- they were an Indo-European group -basically eastern Anatolian Hurrians
      • defeated in battle by the Hittite king Suppiluliumas (1385-1345)
    5. Hurrians/ Mitanni- Northern Syria, east of the Euphrates
      1. fought with Thutmosis III c 1472
      2. annexed Assyria c. 1450
    6. Sea Peoples- early Iron Age seafaring merchants: a mysterious people who show up in the records of their contemporaries and who caused much chaos with their migrations
    7. Luwians
    8. Phrygians: The Phrygians entered Anatolia in the 13th century BCE They were Indo-Europeans who conquered central and western Asia Minor under Phryges c. end of 2nd millennium BCE (Iliad iii.184 ff.)
      1. Midas c. 725 BCE
      2. Phrygia destroyed by the Cimmerians c. 700
      3. Gordias - The Gordion Knot
      4. Male god Papas took his side by the old Anatolian Mama god
      5. Troy and the Trojans

        The discovery and excavation of Troy was among the more spectacular, seminal and 'groundbreaking' events in archaeological history.

        Excavations: Troy was brought into the limelight by Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890) . Schliemann, who remains a controversial figure today pursued a kind of obsession he had to discover the ruins of Troy. In 1868 Schliemann obtained permission from Ottoman authorities to excavate in the ruins of Hisarlik in Northwestern Turkey. Schliemann's trenches revealed a burnt layer, belonging to the second building period, which he was convinced was the Troy of Homer. In 1882 Schliemann was joined by Wilhelm Dortfeld. Dorpfeld distinguished nine different layers of civilization. Further excavations and analyses by American archeologists under Carl Blegen, from 1932-1938, confirmed these layers. Dorpfeld's nine layers were further subdivided resulting in no fewer than thirty habitation levels. Excavations continue under a team from Tubingen, Germany.

        The oldest Troy, Troy I, dates from perhaps 3600 BCE until c. 2500 BCE It consisted of ten strata, lying one on top of another. The walls of Troy I are still in a good state of preservation. The city gate was 2.97 meters wide and was defended by two towers. Troy I was an early bronze age settlement. The settlement apparently came to and end by fire.

        Troy II (2500-2200 BCE) -seven building strata. Troy II represented a fairly highly developed culture, whose essential character was early Aegean and early Cycladic, as in Troy I.'The connection with the cultural centers of Asia minor and the east is clearly recognizable'. The potters of Troy II were conversaant with the kiln and the potters wheel. The second walled city suffered some kind of catastrophe between 2200 and 2100 BCE This is the level from which Schliemann removed the reknowned gold ornaments, apparently from IIg. IIg was perhaps destroyed by some kind of invading force although it shows no signs of cultural change until much later.

        Troy III-V (2200-1800)- during this period there was a gradual fading of the former glory of Troy and a decline in prosperity. During Troy IV there was not even a fortifying wall. In the time of Troy V the settlement seems to have been encircled by a minor wall.

        Troy VI (1800-1275 BCE), this city represented one of the pinnacle cultural achievements of its age. It is probabe that this is the famed city of Homer, reflected by VI f-h phases. Priam and his people may have lived in the brilliant VIh period. The destruction of the city took place in the folloowing phase, VII a. However according to the findings of Blegen and others it is considered that Troy VI was destroyed by an earthquake.

        Troy VIIa (1275-1240 BCE)- the American expedition places the Troy of Homer in this phase in contradiction to the theories of other archaeologists who believe that this level does not show the same levels of sophistication and development as Troy VI.

        Troy VII b1 (1240-1190 BCE)

        Troy VII b2 (1190-1100 BCE) There is a change in culture observed in this stratum.

        Troy VIII- Troy VIII represents a Hellenic community. No traces of this civilization go back further than the 7th century BCE In the Hellenistic period an important temple of Athena, of the Dorci order, was built. Herodotus records (Histories VII, 43) that Xerxes sacrificed a thousand oxen to the goddess. Alexander after his victory at the Granicus, visited the temple and gave gifts.

        Troy IX- predominantly Roman in character. The Romans believing that the Trojan hero Aeneas, spawned of Aphrodite (Venus), had founded the original Roman settlement (cf. Virgil's Aeneid), held the city to be of great import. They built extensively here and many of their buidings are still partially extant.

        NB: Probably Troy VI or Troy VII(1250-1050) is the Troy of Homer. Troy VIII which thrived from 700-300 BCE was a Greek foundation while much of Troy IX (300 BCE-300 CE...) was built by Romans- see above.

    9. Urartians (900-600 BCE) The Urartians were descendents of the Hurrians and dwet in the far east of Anatolia in the region surrounding Lake Van.
    10. Cimmerians- The Cimmerians invaded Anatolia in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE During the first half of the seventh century BCE the Cimmerians siezed Ephesus.

Aeolians, Bithynians and Cappadocians

  1. Aeolians- these peoples lived in the region roughly corresponding to the North Aegean coast of Turkey and its neighboring islands. The coastal region of western Anatolia between Smyrna and the bay of Edremit was known as Aiolis. Herodotus counts twelve Aiolian cities to correspond to the cities of Ionia, although the number must have been much greater than this. The most famolus of the Aiolian cities were : Lesbos, Pitane, Elaea, Gryneion, Myrina, Aigai, Kyme, Neonteichos, Temnos, Larisa and Smyrna. Although Smyrna was founded as an Aiolian settlement, it was later inhabited by the people of Colophon and absorbed into the Ionian League. Aiolia has been inhabited since Paleolithic times and flourished in the Bronze age under Phrygian rule. Lesbos seems to have been its most important centre. During the 7th century BCE there was an immigration from Mytilene and especially from Methymna to the opposite shores of the Aegean. As the areas primary concern was agriculture it did not play a large role in historical developments, however it was extremely important in the fields of music and poetry. Sappho, Alkaios and Terpander, the inventoir of the 7 tone scale were all from Lesbos.
    1. Assos: The city of Assos was founded by the people of Methymna on the isle of Lesbos. In the 6th century BCE it came under the hegemony of the Lydians . It became part of the Persian satrapy of Phrygia. In the 5th century it joined the Delian league. The governor Ariobarzanes who rebelled against the Persian king Artaxerxes, was defeated at Assos in 365 BCE. Later the town was governed by the banker Eubolos, who was succeeded as ruler by the eunuch Hermias, one of Plato's students. As a result the philosopher Aristotle stayed in Assos for three years (348-345 BCE). Cleanthes, the head of the stoic school, was from Assos. From 241-133 BCE Assos was under the rule of the Pergamene kingdom. The andesite Doric temple of Athena (c. 530 BCE) is still partially extant.
    2. Larisa
    3. Methymna - controlled by the Athenians during the Peloponnesian wars- attacked and stormed by Callicratidas the Spartan Xen Hell. I.6.13-15
    4. Mytilene The Athenian general Conon was engaged and shut up in Mytilene by the Spartan general Callicratidas in 406 causing great dismay amongst the Athenians and resulting in a massive recue operation Xen Hell. I.6.15 ff.
    5. Smyrna - c. 197 BCE Antiochus III attacks Smyrna from Ephesus Livy xxxiii.38 see C.J. Cadoux, Ancient Smyrna (Oxford 1938), 113-27; G.M Cohen, The Seleucid Colonies (Wiesbade, 1978), 60-3, 77f. Smyrna under Seleucid II OGIS 229
    6. Dardanus-for the story of queen Mania, the wife of Zenis of Dardanus cf. Xen Hell. III.1.10-28
    7. Troy- a.k.a. Ilium ---see above under Phrygians
    8. Hamaxitus, Colonae ; Scepsis; Gergis; Neandria; Cocylium; Cebren Hell.III.1.17-19 9 . Kyme
  2. Bithynians- [Betray their neighbor's the Chalcedonians in the face of Athenian aggression Xen. Hell. 1.3.3]Allied with The Romans and the Pergamenes in their wars against Philip V of Macedon and Antiochus IV of Syria. Hannibal lived amongst the Bithynians and was finally betrayed by them to the Romans. Nicomedes II Epiphanes King of Bithynia c.149-94 BCE
  3. Cappadocian Kingdom : Artabazus the son of Pharnabazus invaded Cappadocia against Datames the satrap of Cappadocia Diod XV.90-91; Nepos Datames; Polyaenus 7.29.1
    1. Ariarathes I 333-322
    2. Ariarathes II 301-280?
    3. Ariaramnes 280?-230?
    4. Ariarathes III 230-220
    5. Ariarathes IV Eusebes 220-163
    6. Ariarathes V Eusebes Philopater 163-130
    7. Ariarathes VI Epiphanes Philopater 125-111
    8. Ariarathes vii Philometer 111-99
    9. Ariarathes VIII 99-97
    10. Ariarathes IX Eusebes Philopater 100-87
    11. Ariobarzanes I Philorhomaios 96-63
    12. Ariobarzanes II Philopater 63-52
    13. Ariobarzanes III Eusebes Philorhomaios 52-42 *** Cappadocians served with Pompeius against Caesar,, and were present at the battle of Pharsalus (App. II.71- :"Ariarathes king"??***however later Appian tellls us that when Caesar's murderers were fighting Antony, Cassius sent his cavalry to Cappadocia to attack Ariobarzanes whom he believed to be plotting against him.
    14. Ariarathes X. Eusebes Philadelphos 42-36- Antony visited Cappadocia after the victory at Philippi."In Cappadocia he decided between Ariarathes and Sisina, giing the throne to Sisina because he thought his mother Glaphyra was a beautiful woman." (Appian V.7)
    15. Archelaos I Philopatris, Ktistes 36 BCE-17 CE
    16. Archelaos II 19-36

Carians

  1. Carians: Caria is the mountainous region of SW coastal Anatolia. encircled by Ionia, Lycia and Phrygia. The boundaries of Caria were clearly defined by the Maeander on the north and in the south by the modern lake called Koycegiz. The Carian language remains undeciphered although the script is Greek in origin. Only about three dozen inscriptions have been found in both the language and script, many of them short and fragmentary. Herodotus reports that the Carians were Lelegians according to Cretan legend and had lived in the islands in prehistoric times; later when the Dorians and Ionians had spread to the islands they expelled the Carians to the coast of Asia. Strabo relates a similar account; however the Carians themselves disagreed with this view maintaning that they were indiginous to the region. Thucydides agrees that they were islanders and says that they practised piracy. He further insists that when Delos was purified of old tombs during the Peloponnesian wars, more than half the dead were recognized as Carians from what was found in their graves. This has not been confirmed by modern archeology. Scholars today tend to believe that the Carians were correct in this matter and were in fact indiginous. In the Iliad the Carians appear as allies of the Trojans; he places them around Miletus and Mt Mycale and Herodotus confirms this placing Miletus, Myus and Priene in Caria and says that they speak the same language. Of course in Herodotus' day these cities were part of the Ionian league and hence Greek. Apparently large segments of the population still spoke the older language of the Carians. They seem to have been closely related to the Lelegians who like the 'Pelasgians' were often mentioned in ancient literature with few details or facts included. Indeed at one time the name of Miletus had been 'Lelegeis'. The Lelegians finally settled in the region around Halicarnassus founding eight cities there, of which extant remains exist throughout the Bodrum peninsula. The Lelegians seem to have been somewhat subordinate to the Carians.No Lelegian inscriptions have been found. Strabo tells us that they were soldiers for the Carians and became scatterd all over Greece. During the 7th and 6th centuries BCE the area was under the control of the Lydians. When in 546 the Lydians were conquered by the Persians Caria also fell to them. The Persian general Harpagus went into Caria after subjugating Ionia, meeting opposition only from the Lelegian town of Pedasa. However for the most part local rulers continued to hold sway. During the Ionian revolt against the Persians, the Carians joined in. After the defeat and capture of Miletus in 494 BCE the Persians under Daurises marched south to suppress the Carians as well. The Carians were defeated at the river Marsyas. They suffered a second defeat which lost them Mylasa. But in their third meeting the Carians ambushed Daurises and destroyed his army. Not long thereafter following upon the invasions of Greece by Darius I and Xerxes I virtually the entire Aegean coast joined in the maritime Delian Confederation of Athens. Around 470 the Athenian general Cimon was campaigning against the Persians in Caria. (Diod. XI.60) After the collapse of Athens at the end of the Peloponnesian wars the Spartans tried to maintain control over the cities of Asia but were unable and in 387 BCE under the terms of the so-called "King's Peace" all the cities of Asia were once more recognized as being under Persian control. The Satrapy of Caria was first commanded by a man from Mylasa named Hyssaldomus; he was succeeded by his son Hecatomnus, and in 377 by the latter's son Mausolus. Mausolus made himself virtually an independent ruler from his capital in Mylasa, however he moved his residence to Halicarnassus.It was the center of the Hecatomnid dynasty (see below under Halicarnassus) Alexander arrived and conquered Caria, but he had bigger fish to fry and soon moved on leaving the region in the hands of Queen Ada but during the wars of the Diadochoi she had disappeared and the general confusion, warfare and bloodshe of the Eastern Med in the third century engulfed Caria as well. Antigonus III Doson made an expedition into Caria c. 227 BCE but apparently not on a mission of conquest. In 201 BCE Philip V of Macedon went to Caria as he was engaged in wars with Pergamon and Rhodes. During the third century there was a Second Carian confederation, known as the Chryasoric League. The League met to discuss affairs at the sanctuary of Zeus Chrysaoreus near Stratonikya. Meanwhile Philip V was defeated by the expanding power of the Romans in the Second Macedonian War . The defeat of Philip led to the expansion of Seleucid power in Anatolia under Antiochus III. Likewise he too was defeated by the Romans in 190 BCE at the battle of Magnesia-under-Sipylus in what is sometimes called the Asiatic War. By the treaty of Apamea which followed Caria and Lycia were given to the Rhodians and the rest of Asia Minor to the Pergamene kingdom. The Rhodians controlled Caria for twenty years but were resented and resisted by the Carians. In 167 b.c.e The Carians revolted from Rhodes and in the same year the Roman Senate proclaimed Lycia and Caria to be free. However after the Pergamene bequeathal of Kingship in Asia to the Romans, Caria was organized into the province of Asia by the Romans. In 88 b.c.e all of Asia was rocked by the ruler of Sinope Mithradates who killed all the Romans in the province thus sparking the First Mithradatic War. However in the second war with Mithradates Caria was spared from the action. Later Caria became embroiled, like the rest of the Mediterranean in the Roman civil wars. Brutus and Cassius having fled Rome after their murder of Julius Caesar had made the east their base of operations. Although defeated by the combined forces of Octavian and Marc Antony, their envoy Labienus who had gone to the Parthians for assistance, arrived in Asia Minor with an army of Persians in 40BCE He siezed most of the cities in Caria. Antony sent a strong force from Egypt to deal with these incursions in 39 BCE Labienus withdrew to Cilicia, was defeated and destroyed. With the foundation of the empire things improved for Caria and the area flourished under the Pax Romana. Under the emperor Diocletian Caria became for the first time a Roman province by its own right. [See George E. Bean, Turkey Beyond the Maeander, 1971 ,for details & for bibliography]

Halicarnassus

According to Herodotus, a native, the city was founded by Dorian colonists. It was part of a confederation of Dorian cities along with Knidos, Kos, Lindos, Kamiros, and Ialysos. Representatives of the confederation met in the the temple of Apollo in Knidos. From the middle of the 6th century on the city was under the control of the Persians although local rulers held significant authority. Under Hecatomnus the area became more or less autonomous (see below)

  1. Herodotus 484-420 BCE (http://www.Perseus.com)
  2. Hecatomnid Dynasty
    1. Hecatomnos, d. 377 BCE
    2. Mausolus (377-353 BCE) son of Hecatomnos of Mylasa: Mausolus was a satrap of the Persians but maintained his own authority and took part in the revolt against Artaxerxes II Arsakes (Diod. XV.90; XVI.36.2). He helped the Rhodians in their war against Athens, and conquered large areas of Lydia, Ionia and the nearby islands. He rebuilt the old Lelegian cities of Myndos and Syangela. On his borders he fortified Latmus and Caunus.
    3. Mausoleum (Pliny NH xxxvi.30-31)- built around 350 BCE and one of the wonders of the ancient world (cf. Vitruvius vii.praef. 12-13)
    4. Artemisia II (353-351 BCE) Diod XVI.36.2; 45.7
    5. Idriaeus (351-344 BCE)- he died of disease and was succeeded by his sister and wife Ada (who later became Queen of Alinda), but she was expelled by her brother Pixodarus, who threw in his lot with the Persians inviting in a Persian Satrap Othontapates (Orontobates?) This satrap was ruling when Alexander arrived in 334.
    6. Arrival of Alexander the Great 334 BCE- after Alexander besieged and captured the city he handed it over to Queen Ada of Alinda. Later the city was under the control first of the Seleucids, then the Pergamenes and finally became part of the Roman province of Asia (133 BCE). It remained an important port and strategic site throughout history.
  3. Knights of St John 1402 CE
    • Castle of St Peter: built largely from the masonry of the world-famous Mausoleum which had been destroyed in late antiquity by an earthquake.
  4. Myndos - Alexander the Great stayed here during his siege of Halicarnassus and entered the latter through the still-extant Myndos Gate: 'freed' by Ptolemy I from the possession of Antigonus (309 BCE)
  5. Heracleia ad Latmos- famous as the home of mythical Endymion with whom the moon goddess Selene fell in love. In ancient times the city was connected to the sea. (Strabo XIV.636) It was part of the Delian league and later controlled by the Hecatomnids of Halicarnassus.- temple of Athena- agora- bouleuterion- theatre- walls- Endymion temple- necropolis
  6. Mylasa- this was the capital of Caria except during the rule of the Hecatomnid dynasty of Halicarnassus. It had an important temple of a native god, renamed for Zeus later and a common sanctuary for all the Carians. It was closely connected to nearby Euromos. Its origins are unknown. Its earliest hisorical mention is at the beginning of the seventh century when a Mylasan by the name of Arselis is said to have helped Gyges the Lydian in his contest for the throne of Lydia. In 500 BCE the tyrant of Mylasa was Oliatus, son of Ibanollis. Eventually Mylasa was included in the Delian Confederation and from 450 to 440 paid a tribute of one talent or less. After 440 it was removed from the list of member states and by the end of the century the whole of inland Caria was once more under Persian control. The Hecatomnid dynasty of Halicarnassus was originally from Mylasa but was moved there from Mylasa by Mausolus . It is believed by scholars that the Hecatomnids actually moved the location of the city to its permanent site at Milas. Also the city possessed the ancient sanctuary of Labraynda. After Alexander conquered Caria, he apparently offered the revenue from the city along with three others to the Athenian statesman Phocion, but Phocion declined the offer. After Alexander's death, the area fell under the control of Ptolemy II and its affairs were run by the Chrysaoric League with Ptolemaic support; but Antiochus II (261-246 BCE) of Syria gained control soon thereafter and his successor, Seleucus II decaled Mylasa a 'free' city. Not long after the Macedonian king Antigonus III Doson marched into Caria. There were friendly relations between him and Mylasa as well as with Antigonus' successor Philip V, although after his downfall the Mylasans went back to the friendship of the Seleucids. In 189 BCE aftter the defeat of Antiochus, the Romans handed all of Caria over to the Rhodians. In 167 BCE they revolted from the Rhodians and were soon thereafter declared free by the Romans once more.Under the Pax Romana Mylasa flourished and brought under her control in the name of 'Sympolity' the cities of Euromos, Chalcetor, Hydae, Olympos and Labraynda, and their citizenry were alloted to her own tribes. In 143 BCE Mylasa acted as adjudicator between Priene and Magnesia and thus had significant status in the region. However the city fell into debt by the middle of the first century and she did not escape the ravages in Caria of Labienus and his Parthian armies (***cf. Strabo>Euthydemus and Hybreas); many citizens were killed, temples and crops were burned and the lands were devastated- the citizenry appealled to Augustus for help. The city seems to have recovered under the empire and minted her own coins into the third century, and later was the seat of a bishopric. There is little extant of the old city today mostly limited to some Roman tombs although the locations of the theatre and several temples, mostly to various local aspects of Zeus, have been ascertained.
  7. Euromos- settled in the 6th century BCE Euromos and Mylasa were twin cities. After Mylasa Euromos was the next largest and most important city in the region. In the fifth century BCE the name appears as Kyromos or Hyromos. The city took part in the revolt against the Rhodians along with Mylasa in 167 BCE Despite the close relations between Euromos and Mylasa there were some arguments between them as attested by inscriptions. The city seems to have flourished under the Empire. Coinage dates from the 2nd centry BCE to the second century CE Euromos was home to the cult of an indigenous deity which was later assimilated into worship of Zeus- temple of Zeus built by Hadrian of the Corinthian order- theatre- agora with stoa
  8. Olymus - five miles North-Northwest of Milas and three miles east of Euromos, at or near the village of Kafaca. The city was controlled at times by Mylasa and Euromos. It was a part of the Delian Confederation where the city's name was listed as Hylimus. Apollo and Artemis were worshipped here and the temple has been identified as a mound there but remains unexcavated. Nothing remains visible of the old city today.
  9. Chalcetor - about six miles from Milas on the way to Bafa. Very little is known of its history; it seems to have been under the control of Euromos and Mylasa. There is evident a necropolis, the remains of the city walls and two fortresses (Asar and Kale), and the scanty remains of a temple of Apollo. It was included in the Delian Confederation
  10. Hydae (Kydae) other than its membership in the Delian Confederation nothing is known of the history of this city. Archaeological records indicate that it was inhabited from a very early date, as early as the third millenium. Apollo and Artemis were worshipped here. Also the river Saricay was deified. There are scant remains on the acropolis hill and in the area but little has been identified with any certainty.
  11. Labranda- (Labraynda) A sanctuary had existed here from at least the 5th century BCE, a sanctuary to Zeus Stratias (Herodotus V.119). It was never a city like Mylasa or other places in the region, and indeed the sanctuary belonged from earliest times to the Mylasans, and was joined to it by a Sacred Way, paved with stone and eight miles long. When in 499 BCE the Persians under the general Daurises marched south against the Carians who had joined in the Ionian Revolt, the Carians, defeated at the river Marsyas, retreated to the sanctuary at Labranda and debated whether to fight again. They decided upon resistence and lost again, whereupon Mylasa fell into Persian possession. A century later Mausolus the Hecatomnid ruled in Mylasa and engaged in many building projects in Labranda. In the early part of the third century the area was dominated by the Chrysaoric League, centered in Stratonikeia and supported by Ptolemy II of Egypt, although they were soon thereafter supplanted by Antiochus II of the Seleucids. After him Seleucus II who was friendly to Mylasa confirmed her possession of the sanctuary at Labranda. Around 240 BCE the priests of Zeus and members of the Chrysaoric League complained to the Seleucid king of abuses by the Mylasans; apparently they were attempting to gain control of the sanctuary. This activity continued for twenty more years when finally Philip V of Macedon declared the sanctuary to be Mylasan.In the 1st century CE more buildings were added including baths and a stoa, and in the early Byzantine period a church was built there. There was probably an oracle in Labranda though our sources seem not to metion it. Zeus Stratias was a local cult perhaps an Anatolian diety converted and Hellenized. Herodotus describes the sanctuary as a large sacred grove of plane trees. In coinage the god is shown standing with a double axe over his shoulder and a long spear in his left hand. Also he is shown bearded with a cylindrical headdress, wearing a necklace and a breastplate- he is a wargod with some feminine aspect perhaps suggesting a fusion of deific attributes, male and female. Although the main temple was begun by Mausolus, it was his successor Idriaeus who completed most of the work. Certainly there were many festivals and games here. Still evident is the Temple of Zeus, or First Andron, dedicated by Idriaeus, along with the Second Andron, built by Mausolus, i.e.- sacred gathering places for men: the first and second Andria. Also extant are the Propylaea of the Sacred Way, the 'Doric' House, and a number of other buildings including the 'Ablution hall' also considered to possibly be the home of a 'fish oracle' cf. Aelian's Natura Animalium and Pliny Other buildings include a stadium and numerous tombs, especially along the sacred way.
  12. Keramos- nothing is known of the origins of this important city and it is probably of Carian origin although it already shows strong signs of Hellenization by the 6th century BCE Keramos was a member of the Delian Confederation and later the Chryasoric League. Along with the rest of Caria, Keramos was given to the Rhodians in 189 BCE by the victorious Romans after the Asiatic War by the treay of Apamea. During the First Mithradatic War in 81 BCE Keramos took the side of the Pontic king and was punished by being given to Stratonikya. There are extant remains of the city wall, and a temple, perhaps that of Zeus Chrysaoreus, along with another temple outside the city walls.
  13. Stratonikya- Antiochus I founder of the Seleucids, built this city to honor his wife who was also his stepmother. The date is unknown but it must have been after 281 BCE when the Seleucids first came into command of the region. For some time the city was controlled by the Rhodians. Livy writes that in 197 BCE the Rhodians 'recovered' the city. Rhodian possession of the city was confirmed at Apamea in 188 but taken away for good in 167 BCE The city was siezed and plundered by Mithradates and later well treated by Sulla. Labienus at the head of Parthian hordes invested the city but failed to take it. ***The city prospered under the Romans (Strabo XIV.660)- walls and gate- gymnasium-

Iassos, Knidos and the Hellespont

  1. Iassos- Iassos stands like an island attached to the mainland by a narrow isthmus. It was founded by colonists from Argos c. 950 BCE, and later occupied by emigrants from Miletus. From the archaeological evidence it would seem that there was an existing culture on site when the colonists arrived. As a result Iassos had an Ionian character rather than Dorian, despite its colonial heritage. It was heavily dependent on the abundant fish in the Mediterranean nearby, and throughout her history she had a bond of sorts with the dolphins who swam offshore. The chief deities were Artemis Astias, Apollo and Zeus Most Great; however Dionysus was also held in great importance: the theatre was dedicated to him and his festival made the city a musical and dramatic centre. Little is known of the early history of the city; Iassos like its neighbors was a member of the Delian Confederation. Tribute was set at one talent. In the first years of the Persian-Spartan Alliance Iassos remained an Athenian ally under the Persian renegade Amorges. The Spartan fleet sacked and pillaged Iassos in 412 BCE Possibly the Spartan general Lysander later destroyed the city yet again ("Thasos in Caria" cf. Thucydides *** ) Soon thereafter Iassos was part of a short-lived Aegean League consisting of Byzantium, Rhodes, Samos, Ephesus, and Cnidos, known only from its coinage. However the King's Peace soon put and end to that ceding all the cities of Asia to the Persians. Iassos was under the rule of the Persian satrap Mausolus . When Alexander the Great arrived in 334 BCE and laid siege to Miletus, the Iassians contributed one ship to the relieving Persian fleet. Accoroding to inscriptions, after Alexander's death apparently the city came under the influence of three privateers, Machaon, Sopolis, and Hieron (c. 320-310 BCE) and swore loyalty to the general Ptolemy I Soter by 309. By the end of the third century Iassos had fallen under the control of an independent dynast named Olympichus. A few years later Philip V of Macedon marched into Caria and Iassos was one of the cities that he possessed. In 196 the Romans required him to evacuate the city however. Then Antiochus III took control of regions in Anatolia and brought the Romans into Asia minor against him. Laodike, sister of Antiochus , took pity on the city which was in desperate straights and she and and her brother were thanked in public inscriptions as saviours of the city. After the Romans had defeated the Seleucid armies in 190 BCE the entire region was given by the Romans to the Rhodians, and then freed again in 168 BCE, until the formation of the Roman province of Asiain 129 BCE In the First Mithradatic War Iassos was punished for siding with the Pontic king: the city was sacked by pirates while the Roman general watched. Not much seems to have happened in Iassos in Imperial times though she was home to a customs house and later a bishopric. There is a castle in Iassos thought to have belonged to the Knights of St John stationed in Bodrum.
  2. Knidos- founded around 400 BCE by Dorian colonists, and part of a 6 city confederation of Dorian cities, along with Halicarnassos, Kos, Lindos, Kamiros and Ialysos.The Temple of Apollo at Knidos was the central meeting place for the confederation. (Strabo XIV.656) Once famous for the great cult statue of Aphrodite by Praxiteles. - temple of Aphrodite- theatre- 4th century sundial- Byzantine church
  3. Nyssa (modern Sultanhisar)- Traditionally founded by Peloponnesians, the city was probably rebuilt by Antiochus I Soter, son of Seleucus, in the first half of the third century BCE It flourished from the 1st century BCE until the 3rd century c.e. It was famous as an academic center. Strabo b. 63 BCEstudied and lived here. He tells us (Strabo XIV, 649-650) that he was a pupil of Aristodemus in Nyssa, and that the city was divided into two by a torrential stream. The two parts of the city were joined by a bridge. Strabo also mentions an amphitheatre and a tunnel used to control the turbid waters, as well as a gymnasion, agora, and gerontikon; all of which have survived to some degree, many of them enlarged or altered during the later Roman period. There is also preserved a library the est preserved in Anatolia aside from the library of Celsus in Ephesus. Also extant are remains of a stadium, a bouleuterion, baths, some Byzantine churches and a necropolis.
  4. Alinda- (Mugla)- first settled around 1200 BCE Ada the daughter of Hecatomnus of Halicarnassus, after she was expelled by her brother Pixodaros (344 BCE), made Alinda her capital and ruled there as Queen. Alexander when he arrived in the area was well-received by her and later gave her her native city to rule.
  5. Alabanda (Araphisar)- The ruins are situated 4 km west of the Marsias, a tributary of the Maeander. In the 3rd century bce Alabanda was controlled by Caria. It developed good relations with the Romans and remained a free city throughout the Roman period. Strabo tells us that they were prosperous people who lived in debauchery and luxury and had many young girls who played the harp (Strabo xiv.661)
  6. Gerga- "the most mysterious site in Caria"
  7. Aphrodisias- one of the earliest occupied sites in Anatolia. Neolithic and bronze age sites have been found here. There was from primordial times a fertility cult here, which in the Classical period came to be a major cult site for Aphrodite. The Temple of Aphrodite was converted into a Basilica by the Byzantines. A famous school of sculptors existed here in Roman times. The site was pillaged by Tamerlane in 1402. - Stadium (30000 seats)- Temple of Aphrodite/basilica- Odeon- baths- baths of Hadrian- 5 Galleries- colonnaded palaestra- portico of Tiberius- theatre- baths
  8. Hierapolis- this was a cult center built by Eumenes II of Pergamon- Roman baths- necropolis- theatre (12,000 seats: built by Hadrian and Septimius Severus) - Martyrium of St Philip- Hellenistic theatre- agora- arch of Domitian- Plutonium- temple of Apollo
  9. Laodikya ad Lycum- Laodykeia was founded by a member of the Selucid family, probably Antiochus II Theos (261-246) who named it after his wife, Laodike. It was founded in the period 261-253 BCE. After the assassination of Seleucus III, his lieutenant Achaios rebelled against Antiochus III, and in 220 BCE assumed the crown in Laodikya, proclaiming himself 'King of Asia'. During the second part of the 2nd century BCE the city seems to have belonged to the Pergemane kingdom, likely given to them by the Romans after their battles in the region versus the Seleucids. It achieved its heyday in the second century c.e., calling itself the 'Metropolis of Asia'. Hadrian visited the city in 29 c.e.An important Christian councilwas held there during the 4th century c.e. Laodikeia was famed for its black wool (Strabo XII, 78), textiles, banking and medicines- Cicero lived here for awhile. Extant are a stadium, 2 theatres, a nymphaion, an odeon, a gymnasion, an aquaduct, and a necropolis.
  10. Kaunos (Herodotus i.172) ,(Strabo xiv.651)
  11. Chersonnesus and the Hellespont: the area was always central to strategic considerations in light of its controlling maritime traffic to and from the Black sea and thus the crucial food-stuffs coming from the Crimea; this was especially true during the end of the Peloponnesian war and the Roman revolution and civil wars there. There was from ancient times a kind of wall across the isthmus of the Chersonnesus to protect against raids from the fierce Thracian tribesmen [cf. Xen Hell. II.2.10; Herodotus VI.39; Plut. Pericles 19; Procopius Buildings 4.10.5 ff.]
    1. Cardia- birthplace of Eumenes, Alexander's secretary
    2. Sestos-Xanthippus the Athenian general seized Sestos in 479 BCE (Diod. XI.37) and the city remained Athenian-controlled during the Peloponnesian wars but it was later seized by the Spartan govenor of Abydos Dercylidas Xen Hell. IV.8.5
    3. Abydos - controlled by the Spartans during the Peloponnesian wars; the Athenuans and Spartans fought an engagement here in 411 BCE (Xen. Hellenika I.1.5-8) Dercylidas was governor in Abydos for the Spartans; he was later replaced by Anaxibius but he was killed in battle by the Athenian general Iphicrates Xen Hell. IV 8.31-39
    4. Lampsachus
    5. Aegospotami -major battle between the Athenians and Spartans resulted in a complete loss of the Athenian fleet and the end of Athenian hegemony 405 BCE

Cilicians, Ionians and Lycians

  1. Cilicians: took part in the Satraps revolt in 362 BCE(Diod xv.90); in 311 BCE Ptolemy I engaged in campaigns against Antigonus to 'free' the Greek cities there, although the task failed in the face of retaliation by Demetrius Poliorketes [Diod. xx.19.2-5]
    1. Seleucia (Silifke)- founded by Seleucus I Nicator in the 3rd century BCE Also Emperor Frederick Barbarossa drowned in the river here while leading the 3rd crusade. - Temple of Jupiter- Byzantine church and cave of St Thecia- basilica and cistern
    2. Uzuncaburch (DioCaesarea)
    3. Corycus
    4. Tarsus (Ap. IV, 64; V.7) Antony freed them from taxation and freed those who had been enslaved
    5. Adana
  2. Ionians
    1. Ionian confederation- the Pan-Ionic league consisted of 13 cities. The area was first colonized by the Ionians in the 12th century BCE and reached its zenith in the sixth and seventh centuries. The Ionians were accustomed to hold an assemblage of all their member states and hold sacrifice to the God Poseidon in a place called Mycale- later the PanIonia was held in Ephesus. The area became central to the history of the entire region when at the instigation of Athens and others they engaged in the Ionian Revolt (499 BCE) After the victory of the Greek allies against the Persians at the Battle of Mycale (479) many Ionians prepared to move to mainland Greece but were convinced by the Athenians to remain in Asia. (Diod. XI.37 The names of the twelve great Ionian cities given by Herodotus are as follows: Miletos, Myus, Priene, Ephesus, Colophon, Teos and / *** ; took part in the Satraps Revolt 362 BCE
      1. Phocaea- founded around 1000 BCE by Ionian colonists. Xerxes I massed a huge fleet here in preparation for the Third Expedition against Greece. (Diod. XI.2) It was considered part of the Ionian confederation despite being in Aeolian territory. The Phocaeans were renowned seafarers and colonized a number of sites including Massilia (modern Marseilles) The Temple of Athena there was struck by lightning and set on fire (408 or 407/6) Xen Hell. I.3.1 Phocaea was allied to the Athenians and blockaded by by the Spartan general Thrasybulos in 407 BCE
      2. Ephesus -controlled by the Persians during the Peloponnesian wars: battle with the Athenian general Thrasyllus (409 BCE) Xen Hell. I.2.7-10 -
      3. Miletus- German archeologists have uncovered the remains of a Creto-Mycenaean settlement dating from the 16th century BCE Ionian invaders made their appearance here in the 11th century. At Athenian instigation the city unfortunately headed the Ionian revolt against Persian rule between 500 and 494. Darius I crushed the city and it never really fully recovered. During the Peloponnesian wars it remained in Persian hands and was used as a military base by the Spartans (Xen Hell. I.6.7-14) - theatre- Bouleuterion- lion harbor- temple of Athena- agora- gymnasium- grid pattern streets-
      4. Priene- Priene was an important city in the Ionian league as they met here for votes and festivals- Bouleuterion- temple of Athena designed by Pythius of Halicarnassus- theatre- Byzantine church-northern and southern agoras- gymnasium- stadium- grid pattern streets- baths of Faustina
      5. Didyma- although there was a settlement predating the Ionians the imported cult of Apollo brought notoriety to the place. Massive 120 columned temple of Apollo
      6. Chios Xen Hell. II.1.1-7
      7. Myus (Avshar Kalesi) Strabo XIV, 633. Founded by Kydrelos a son of legendary King Kodros of Athens. It was one of the cities of the PanIonic League (Strabo XIV, 636) but never seems to have played a significant role in history and was overshadowed by nearby Miletus. Inn ancient times the city was a promintory on the sea-coast; the Persian fleet anchored there under Megabates in 499 BCE (Herodotus V, 32&36). At the battle of Lade 494 BCE, the Myans provided only 3 ships. The city was part of the Delian league. Together with Magnesia on the Maeander and Lampsachus, Myos was given to Themistocles the hero of the battle of Salamis in 480, by the Persian King Artaxerxes (Thucidydes I.138.5; Plutarch Them. 29.7). This was probably around 465 BCE When Philip V of Macedon captured the city in 201 BCE, he gave it to the Magnesians in exchange for food for his army (Strabo XIV.636). Soon after the city fell under the control of the Milesians. By the time of Strabo the city was thirty stades from the sea, the gulf blocked by silt from the Maeander. Mosquitos and malaria became so intense from the flooding that the city was abandoned. (Pausanias VII.2.xi).
      8. Samos: Samos was an important military base for the Athenians towards the end of the Peloponnesian wars. After the defeat of the Athenians at Aegospotami Samos was blockaded by Lysander the Spartan and yielded to him Xen Hell. II.3.6-9 -birthplace of Pythagoras - tunnel of Euptolemus -massive Heraion: temple of Hera
      9. Notion
      10. Claros- there was an oracle and temple of Apollo here
      11. Teos
      12. Carina
      13. Mycale: battle with the Persians 479 b.c.e. Diod. XI.34-5
  3. Lycia- the Lycians are thought to be an indigenous, pre-Hittite people. However there was general agreement in antiquity that the Lycians came from Crete with Sarpedon the brother of Minos, when he was expelled by the latter (15th c. BCE); and a tradition handed down through Ephoros records that they went through Miletus of which they were the founders. From there they may have moved to Lycia through Caria, perhaps some centuries later. [see George Bean, Turkey Beyond the Maeander, 1971, p.3] In any case, once they had established themselves on the southern coast of Anatolia, on what is now called in Turkey 'The Turquoise Coast', there was a Lycian Confederation, a democratic grouping which consisted of 23 voting units. The Lycians are first mentioned by Homer where they appear as allies of the Trojans. In the 6th century the area was subdued by the Persian general Harpagus but remained largely independent. Around 470 the Athenian general Cimon was campaigning against the Persians in Lycia. (Diod. XI.60) From 454 the Lycians became part of the Delian League. After 404 BCE they fell under Persian domination once again. They took part in the Satraps Revolt in 362 BCE Upon Alexander's arrival in 333 they fell to him. Upon his death the area was controlled by the Ptolemies for a short period although the Ptolemies were defeated by the Seleucids under Antiochus III in 197 BCE, who in turn was defeated by the Romans, who handed the region over to the Rhodians. However by 167 the Lycians had once again control of their own affairs under Roman hegemony. They resisted the Pontic king Mithradates in 88 BCE and were rewarded by Rome for her loyalty. However during the Roman civil wars in 42 BCE they unwisely failed to support **Brutus which resulted in the destruction of Xanthos (again). In 43 CE Lycia was added to the administrative region of Pamphylia.
    1. Telmessos: (modern Fethiye) - Telmessos was not originally part of the Lycian confederation and indeed even fought against the Lycians in the 4th century By Roman times the city was however part of the confederation. Like most Lycian cities it was captured by Alexander the Great in 334-333 but was lost soon thereafter. The city was recaptured by means of a cunning strategy; Nerachus the Cretan asked to leave a number of captive women musicians and boys in the city. The women had weapons hidden in their instrument cases with which the acropolis was seized and the city taken. In the 8th century CE the city's name was changed to Anastasiopolis after the current Byzantine Emperor and became Makri n the following century. It was renamed Fethiye in the 20th century after a famous pilot and war hero. Most of the ancient and mediaeval cities were destroyed in a series of earthquakes over the centuries.
      • Tomb of Amyntas- amphitheatre- mediaeval fortress
    2. Tlos (3 votes) - referred to in Hittite records as "Dalawa in the Lukka lands".
      • The fortress of Kanli Ali Aga- necro0polis and tomb of Bellerophon- agora- market hall- baths- Yedi kapi- Byzantine basilica- theatre
    3. Xanthos-the chief town of Lycia, was named after the nearby river Xanthos still boasts the extant remains of a Roman theatre; Lycian pillar tombs- tomb of the gryphons- agora: most of the best of the extant friezes, etc. were brought to England by the English traveler Charles Fellows between 1838-1840 and now reside in the British museum. > Unlucky Xanthos was devastated in war on several occasions in antiquity. In the time of Harpagus the Mede, commanding an army for Cyrus the Great, the city was taken and the citizens destroyed themselves rather than being taken (Appian IV.80; Herodotus I.176) They apparently suffered the same fate when Alexander the Great arrived at their walls. Similarly when Brutus attacked Xanthos with eight legions during the Roman civil wars (42 BCE) they resisted fiercely until the town was taken and then committed mass suicide, destroying their own property and putting their citizenry to death. (Ap. IV.75-80) In 309 BCE Ptolemy I Lagos 'liberated' Xanthos along with other Lycian cities from the clutches of Antigonus
    4. Patara-served as a harbor for the Xanthians- birthplace of St Nicholas (Santa Claus)- once famous for a temple of Apollo- temple gate - necropolis- theatre- baths- Lycian tombs. C. Caesar's murderer Brutus came here after his siezure of Xanthos (42 BCE) and they capitulated when they saw what had occurred in Xanthos (Ap. IV.81)
    5. Kadyanda- necropolis- agora- stadium- temple-baths- walls- theatre
    6. Karmylassos (ghost town near Hisaronu)- Panayia Piriotissa basilica
    7. Kaunos- a Carian foundation of the 9th century, Kaunos was closely allied with nearby Xanthos. The city was under the rule of the Hecatomnids of Halicarnassus and seems to have been thoroughly Hellenized. The city passed hands from one ruler to another- first Alexander, then to Antigonus Monophthalmus, and then to Ptolemy, the Selucids and finally to Rhodes before finally being encompassed by Roman rule. The city was famous for figs, fish and malaria.
      • wall-acropolis- theatre- temple of Apollo- Roman baths- Byzantine basilica- Doric temple- agora- fountain house- stoa- ancient harbor
    8. Letoon- this shrine to Leto was the official shrine of the Lycian confederation and later became a center of Christian worship. 3 temples (Apollo, Artemis, Leto), Hellenistic theatre- nymphaeum
    9. Sidyma-
    10. Pinara (3 votes)-
      • lower acropolis- tombs- royal tomb- agora-temple- church-tower- theatre- upper agora
    11. Antiphellos
    12. Myra: Lentulus was sent by Brutus against Andriace , the seaport of Myra, and broke the harbor chain and entered Myra abd recieved their capitulation and treasure (Appian IV.82)
    13. Andriake- the port of Myra
    14. Phoenicus
    15. Limyra
    16. Arykanda
    17. Olympos - the inhabitants of this important Roman city worshipped the god Vulcan, god of fire, no doubt inspired by the nearby Chimaera, eternal flame springing from the mountainside
    18. Phaselis- three harbors; Hadrianic Gate

Lydians, Pamphylians and Pisidians

  1. Lydians
    1. The Lydian Kings
      1. Gyges (Her. i.vi-i.xv) (685-644)
        • the ruse of Candaules
      2. Ardys (Her. i.xv) ( 644-615)
        1. captured Priene and raided Milesian territory
        2. Cimmerian invasion of Asia
      3. Sadyattes (Her. i.xv) (615-610)
      4. Alyattes (Her. i.xvi-i.xxv) (610-560)
        1. drive Cimmerians from Asia
        2. seized Smyrna
        3. warfare and eventual armistice with Milesians
      5. Croesus (560-547 BCE): [Herodotus Histories. i.xxvi-xciii; Diodorus Siculus IX.2; IX.25-34]
    2. Conquest of Lydia by Persia under Cyrus (546)
    3. Sardis
    4. Autophradates satrap of Lydia takes part in the Satraps Revolt 362.BCE Diod. XV.90
  2. Mysians: Orontes satrap of Mysia took part in the Satraps Revolt c. 362 BCE (Diod. Sic. XV.90)
  3. Pamphylians- The land east of Antalya was called Pamphylia in ancient times and is backed by the impressive Taurus mountains. Towards the end of the second millennium Achaeans entered Pamphylia and settled there.; took part in the Satraps Revolt of 362 BCE (Diod xv.90)
    1. Anamur- founded by the Romans, this city flourished under Roman rule. - baths- necropolis-stadium- theatre
    2. Antalya- founded by Attalus II of Pergamum and originally called Attaleia after him. The most significant monument from ancient times is probably the triple-arched Hadrian's Gate, built by the emperor in 130 CE
    3. Aspendos- this important Pamphylian city is located by the river Eurymedon. It was settled since at least Hittite times and was one of the first cities in the region to mint its own coins. It came under Persian control in 546 BCE Cimon with a fleet of 200 ships destroyed the Persian fleet at the mouth of the Eurymedon in (467?) battle with the Persians in 486. Thereafter it became part of the Delian League . It was captured again by the Persians in 411 BCE and became a naval base for them. Alexander upon arriving in Pamphylia was at first assured of Aspendian cooperation and came to an agreement with them of receiving the taxes that they had formerly paid to the Persians. But they reneged; Alexander marched back to the city and exacted very harsh terms. He garrisoned the city, took 100 talents and demanded 4,000 horses annually. After A.'s death the city passed back and forth between the Ptolemies and the Seleucids, later falling into the hands of Pergamon. The city passed into Roman hands along with the rest of Pergamon's possessions. In 79 BCE Gaius Verres, the quaestor of Cilicia pillaged Aspendos along with the rest of the province. Later however the city flourished under Roman rule. The fine Roman amphitheatre was built in the time of Marcus Aurelius (160-181) by the architect Zeno. It is perhaps the best preserved of all Roman amphitheatres. The amphitheatre is semicircular in shape and divided in two by a large diazoma. There are 21 tiers above and 20 below. Radiating stairways allow for easy access. It probably seated between 10,000 and 12,000 people. The stage building is magnificent with 5 doors providing entrance to the stage. The acoustics of the amphitheatre are superb. Also extant at the site are basilica (27x105 m.), an agora accompanied by shops and a stoa, a nymphaeum (32.5m wide x 15 m high), an Odeon and massive aquaducts. Aspendos was famous for its fine lemon wood and the furniture thereof, wines, salt and especially horses.
    4. Perge-was fed by the Kestros river and had by it access to the sea and thus to trade, despite being 12 kilometers from the sea. It was, according to Strabo, colonized by Argossians after the Trojan war by the heroes Mopsus and Calchas. Seven heroes are mentioned in inscriptions as legendary founders of Pamphylian Perge: Mopsos, Calchas, Riksos, Labos, Machaon, Leonteus, and Minyasas. Perge was almost certainly under Persian hegemony although no evidence to that effect has been discovered. In 333 BCE Perge surrendered to Alexander without resistance. After Alexander's death Perge was under Antigonid control but thereafter passed to the Seleucids. After the treaty of Apamea, the Roman consul Manlius Vulso was sent from Rome in 188 BCE to resolve border disputes between Antiochus III and the Pergamenes. He surrounded the city and within thirty days the city was ceded to the Pergamenes. In 133 BCE Perge became totally independent (under Roman auspices of course). Apparently the city was looted by the notorious Verres, Quaestor of Cilicia. Tully (M.T. Cic.) included it in his inquiry after Verres' misdeeds in 79 BCE The city was sacred to the goddess Artemis although no remnants of the famous temple have been found. In 46 CE St Paul journeyed from Cyprus to Perge (Acts *) and from there continued on to Antioch in Pamphylia, whereupon he returned to Perge and delivered a sermon. **centre until the Arab invasions In the second and third centuries the city prospered and grew. Under Constantine the city reached new prominence and remained a significant Christian center. Theatre: The cavea is in two sections with 19 seating levels above and 23 below forming a total of about 13,000 seats.- Stadium: one of the best preserved stadia in the world measuring 34x334 metres, shaped like a horseshoe on the north and open on the south. It was built on a substructure **-agora-necropolis-
    5. Side- the site was colonized by Aeolians around 600 BCE Both Strabo and Arrian record that Side was founded by Aeolians from Kyme in western Anatolia. There was a strong local dialect of which some extant inscriptions remain. These inscriptions dating to the second and third centuries BCE remain undeciphered. Apparently the name 'Side' means 'Pomegranate' in some ancient Anatolian language. No information exists about Side under Lydian and Persian sovereignty however they did mint their own coins at that time. The city surrendered to Alexander the Great without a fight. The city passed hands thereafter between the Ptolemies and the Seleucids. In 190 BCE Side witnessed a major sea battle off the coast, between the fleets of Rhodes, and the fleet of Antiochus III, commanded by Hannibal. In the second century BCE Side remained independent and became a wealthy commercial and intellectual center. Antiochus VII was sent to Side as a youth to be educated. In the first century BCE the city was seized by pirates and was famous for piracy and the slave-trade but was cleaned up by the Cilician operations of Pompey the Great in 67 BCE Side flourished under Roman rule ad became seat of the provincial governor and his staff. It remained a major commercial center for centuries, particularly in trade with Egypt. It remained as well a major center for slave-trading. In the 5th and 6th centuries CE Side served as the seat of the Bishopric of Eastern Pamphylia and expanded still further. However in the seventh century the entire area was transformed into a war zone by the Arab raids. Most of the inhabitants moved to Antalya. The Site: Walls and gates- the lage main gate is Hellenistic. Nymphaeum- theatre: 2nd century on Hellenistic foundations (16000-17000 seats- the largest in Pamphylia)-2 agoras- agora bathhouse (now the museum)- triumphal arch of Vespasian (74 CE)-Byzantine basilica (5th century CE)- temples of Apollo and Athena and Tyche, Dionysus, and the God Men- massive waterworks- necropolis.
    6. Sillyon- located between Perge ad Aspendos- generally accepted as having been founded after the Trojan war by the heroes Mopsus and Calchas. A statue base found there bears Mopsus' name. Sillyon began to mint its own coinage in the 3rd century BCE theatre (badly damaged)- necropolis- palaestrum (7x55 metres) of Hellenistic date with ten windows of differing dimensions-Hellenistic temple (Doric prostyle)- largest extant Pamphylian inscription- the site was largely destroyed in a landslide in 1969. There is also a Seljuk mosque on the site
  4. Pisidians :Battle of the Eurymedon river between the Persians and the Athenian general Cimon 467/6 BCE (Diod. XI.61) took part in the Satraps Revolt 362 BCE;
    1. Termessos- an impregnable fortress city of warlike Pisidians who fought off Alexander the Great and later were accepted as an independent ally of Rome in 70 BCE- Artemis-Hadrianic temple- Hadrianic propylaeum- gymnasia- theatre- temple of Zeus- necropolis- tomb of Diadoxus Alcetas
    2. Selge- a roman city that was famous for storax, the balsam of the Asiatic ambar tree, desired for medicinal and other purposes. It also produced olives and wine. It was the first Pisidian city to mint coins. The Pisidian language seems to have been related to Luwian. Side was an ancient foe of Termessos and took the side of Alexander immediately when he arrived. They seem to have been continually at war with their neighbors. - stadium-agora- Temple of Zeus- city walls-Currently it remains unexcavated.
  5. Pontus- Sinope, Trebizond - Mithidates VI Eupator Dionysus King of Pontus 121/0-63 BCE aka Mithridates The Great. Mithridates sends envoys to Rome 101 BCE [Diod. xxxvi.15] The Italian allies engaged in the Social War vs Rome send an embassy to Mithridates asking for help vs the Romans Diod. xxxvii.2.11; Poseidonius ap. Athenaeus, 5.213 c=Jacoby , FGH, #87, fr.36, p. 246. 9ff.] Diod. xxxvii.26-7 The First Mithradatic War
  6. Propontis: (the region around the sea of Marmara)- the area along the south shore properly belongs to the region called Mysia, such as Cius e.g.
    1. Lampsachus -allied to the Athenians but siezed by Lysander in 405 Xen Hell II.1.18-20
    2. Parium
    3. Proconnesus
    4. Cyzicus
    5. Dascylium
    6. Cius
    7. Astacus
    8. Chalcedon- Xen Hell. I.3.2-13; submitted tothe Spartans in 405 following upon the naval victory at Aegospotami Hell. II.2.1
    9. Byzantium (see bottom of page)
    10. Chrysopolis
    11. Selymbria
  7. Thracians- historically Thrace was the term roughly bounded by the rivers Danube and Nestos, and by the Aegean, Marmara and Black seas. In ancient times it was home to warlike stock-breeding tribes. Thasos
  8. The Triballians, suffering a famine, moved in full force into the lands of their neighbors and went raiding: more than thirty thousand invaded the land of Abdera 376 BCE- Diod. xv.36; Aeneas Tacitus , 15.8-10
  9. Period of Persian Rule

Hellenic and Roman Times

  1. Alexander the Great 334-323
  2. Diadochoi 323-c. 300
    • Cities of the Diadochoi
      1. Alexandria Troas- founded in 300 BCE by Antigonus I- it was originally called Antigonia and soon thereafter conquered by Lysimachus , King of Macedonia.
      2. Pergamon (Pergamum)- although the city dates back to at least 399 BCE, the town only gained prominence under the control of Lysimachus I. The city went over to the control of the Spartan general Thibron against the Persian satrap Tissaphernes (Xen Hell. II.1.6) c. 399 BCE After Alexander's death Lysimachus' officer Philetairos took control of the city upon learning of Lysimachus' death in battle in Syria. He handed it down to his adopted son Eumenes I who again defeated the Syrians in battle at Sardis and greatly expanded the city. Eumenes is generally considered the founder of the Pergamene dynasty.
        • Acropolis
        • Asclepion
        • Heroon
        • Altar of Zeus
        • Temple of Athena
        • Library
        • Temple of Trajan (Traianeum)
        • Theatre
        • Agora
  3. Galatians- rampaging Gallic tribes invaded Anatolia and wreaked havoc until finally suppressed by the Romans
  4. Hellenistic Kingdoms:
  5. Republican Roman Period in Anatolia (c. 190 BCE-300 CE): (188 BCE) - Roman settlement of Asia by the Peace of Apamea (Phrygia). Antiochus pays a large indemnity, loses his fleet, and effectively surrenders Asia Minor to the profit of Pergamum, Rhodes - and Rome. (167 BCE) the Roman Senate proclaimed Lycia and Caria to be free. Attalus III, king of Pergamum (138-133) bequeathed Pergamene power to Rome thus putting all of Asia Minor in her hands. (129 BCE) - Rome creates the province of Asia. 88 BCE The Mithradatic Wars- Sulla in Asia. Lucius Verres. Cicero..
  6. Roman Empire in Anatolia - Wars with the Parthians; The Emperors Trajan and his son Hadrian; Septimius Severus
  7. Constantine
  8. Early Byzantine Period ***
  9. Wars with Persia - Emperor Heraclius (610-641) defeats the Avars, Persians and Slavs but weakens the empire in the process
  10. Arab Invasions overrun most of the eastern half of the empire
  11. Bulgar invasions -ninth and tenth centuries
  12. Late Byzantine Period
  13. Crusades 1097- *
  14. Manzikert Alp Aslan defeats the Byzantine army under Romanus IV 1071 CE
  15. Seljuk Turks
  16. The Fourth Crusade 1204 CE
  17. Early Ottomans
  18. Fall of Constantinople 1453 CE
  19. Ottoman Empire 1453- 1923 CE
  20. Turkish Republic 1923 CE- present

Important Cities of Ancient Anatolia

  1. Magnesia ad Sipylus
  2. Antioch in Pisidia
  3. Ephesus
  4. Aphrodisias
  5. Side
  6. Smyrna (Izmir)- inhabited as early as the third millennium- it was possibly the birthplace of Homer. The city was destroyed by Lydians around 600 and was in decline until rebuilt by order of Alexander the Great (although not until after his death in 323).The city prospered under Roman rule and continued to do so under Christian rule.
  7. Sardis
    • Marble Way
    • Gymnasium and baths
    • Marble court
    • Temple of Artemis
  8. Heracleia ad Latmos
  9. Euromos
  10. Labranda
  11. Iassos
  12. Knidos

Photo of the Hagia Sophia

Byzantium

The Unique Geographical Positioning of the City

  1. Legendary foundation of the city by Byzas the Megarian 667 BCE
  2. City Seized by Darius the Persian king 512 BCE
  3. City seized from the Persians by the Spartan general Pausanias 479 BCE Diod. XI.44
  4. Inclusion in the Athenian Empire mid-5th century
  5. Revolt against Athens 440 BCE
  6. 2nd revolt against Athens 411 BCE
  7. Alcibiades attacks and siezes Byzantium in 409 BCE Xen Hell. I.3.10-22
  8. City captured by Lysander the Spartan in 404 BCE following the naval victory at Aegospotami Hell. II.2.1
  9. Xenophon's 10,000 arrive at the town, are ill-treated and sack the town
  10. Thebans urge the Byzantines to build ships and attempt to free themselves from Athens Diod. XV.78; cf . Isocrates Philip 53 & Plutarch Philopoemen 14.1,2
  11. Revolt against Athens- gains independence 356 BCE
  12. Besieged by Philip II of Macedon 340 BCE
  13. Byzantium capitulates to Alexander II of Macedon 334 BCE
  14. Celts settle in Thrace with their capital at Tylis near Byzantium and a resulting exaction of dues on the Hellespont Polybius iv.46.5-52
  15. Polybius on Byzantium and Black Sea Trade Polybius
  16. captured by the combined forces of Rhodes, Pergamum and Bithynia 179 BCE
  17. City destroyed by the emperor Septimius Severus 196 CE
  18. Constantine Victorious enters Byzantium 18 September 324 CE [for the bronze serpent column in the Hippodrome set up by Constantine and brought from Delphi cf. Diod. XI.33]
  19. work begins on the rebuilding of the city 4 November 326 CE
  20. Dedication of the new city 11 May 330 CE
  21. Capture of the city by the 4th Crusade 13 April 1204
  22. Capture of the City by Mehmet the Conqueror 29 May 1453 CE
Copyright 1998- November 13, 2005 ,
Jerome T. Shaw, Asgard Enterprises.
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